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Electric and magnetic fields both exert forces on charged particles. The motion of charged particles in these fields can be determined and used in particle accelerators.

Orders or magnitude allow physicists to compare very large and very small distances. The range of subatomic particles and fundamental forces are the cutting edge of modern physics.

Alpha decay involves the release of a helium nucleus. Beta decay involves the release of an electron. Both result in a mass defect and the release of energy, both of which can be calculated.

Irradiance of electromagnetic radiation from a point source of radiation decreases with distance from the source and obeys the inverse square law.

The photoelectric effect shows that light is made up of individual photons. Photoemissions will take place if photons have a high enough frequency and have enough energy.

Constructive and destructive interference can be explained in terms of phase and path difference. Interference patterns can be calculated using wavelength, grating spacing and angle of maxima.

All elements either emit or absorb certain frequencies of light. Evidence from atomic line spectra supports the Bohr model of the atom using photon frequency calculations.

The speed of light changes as it moves between media. This causes refraction. Angles of refraction can be calculated using known speeds or wavelengths. Beyond the critical angle, light is reflected.