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Growth and development

The Iron Age of the British Isles covers the period from about 800 BC to the Roman invasion of 43 AD, and follows on from the Bronze Age.

As the name implies, the Iron Age saw the gradual introduction of iron working technology, although the general adoption of iron artefacts did not become widespread until after 500-400 BC.

As the Iron Age progressed through the first millennium BC, strong regional groupings emerged, reflected in styles of pottery, metal objects and settlement types. In some areas, 'tribal' states and kingdoms developed by the end of the first century BC.

Earlier studies of the British Iron Age tended to see foreign invasions as being responsible for the large scale changes that took place during this period. Modern research has found little evidence to support these theories and the emphasis has switched towards mainly indigenous economic and social changes.

However, archaeology can demonstrate that the trading and exchange contacts between Britain and mainland Europe that had developed in the Bronze Age continued throughout the Iron Age.

Technological innovation increased during the Iron Age, especially towards the end of the period. Some of the major advances included the introduction of the potter's wheel (mainly in south eastern England), the lathe (used for woodworking and manufacturing shale objects) and the rotary quern for grinding grain.

The population of Britain grew substantially during the Iron Age and probably exceeded one million. This population growth was partly made possible by the introduction of new crops, including improved varieties of barley and wheat, and increased farming of peas, beans, flax and other crops.

Farming techniques improved and the introduction of the iron-tipped ploughshare made the cultivation of heavy clay soils possible.

Hill forts

At 1,800 ft long, Maiden Castle is one of the largest and most completely excavated hill forts in Britain  © The best known and most visible remains of the Iron Age are hill forts. Nearly 3,000 examples are known from across the British Isles, ranging in size from small enclosures of less than one hectare, to massive, multi-ditched sites like Maiden Castle in Dorset and Old Oswestry in Shropshire.

The function and form of these monuments varied greatly over time. The earliest examples date from the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age (900-600 BC) and show little evidence of permanent settlement. Instead, these early sites often appear to have been used for seasonal gatherings, perhaps for trade, exchange and religious activities, with a further function as a storage centre for the broader community.

By 450 BC, many of these early hill forts were going out of use. Those that survived were subject to major phases of rebuilding, often with multiple banks and ditches, very complex entrances and clear evidence of a large and permanent population.

The excavation of Danebury in Hampshire has revealed, in considerable detail, the development of a hill fort from the eighth century BC until its abandonment in the first century BC.

In about 450 BC, Danebury began to change into a major, planned settlement with zones for food storage, crop processing, domestic habitation and even religious buildings. The artefacts that have been recovered show the skill and diversity of Iron Age smiths, potters and other 'specialists'. Much of the material from here can be seen at the Museum of the Iron Age in Andover, Hampshire.

In some parts of southern Britain, hill forts were abandoned in about 100 BC. The reasons for this are not fully understood, but may be due in part to the emergence of more centralised tribal states. In western and northern Britain and Ireland, hill forts continued to be occupied and were still playing an important role in everyday life at the time of the Roman conquest in AD 43.

Crannogs

Beyond the hill forts, most Iron Age settlements were small, and probably housed single extended families. These individual farmsteads were set within very ordered and extensive landscapes of fields and tracks. Many were enclosed by banks and ditches, although these were rarely large enough to be considered defensive.

Two good examples have been excavated in southern England, at Little Woodbury in Wiltshire and Gussage All Saints in Dorset. In western and northern Britain and Ireland, such settlements are often known as 'raths' or 'duns'.

The standard Iron Age building was the roundhouse. These could be made of timber or stone, with a roof covering of thatch or turf, depending upon locally available building materials. Well-preserved examples in stone still survive as low circular walls with clear entrances on many upland areas of the British Isles.

The level platforms for timber houses still survive inside unploughed hill forts such as Hod Hill in Dorset, British Camp in Herefordshire and Braidwood in Lothian.

On marsh edges and lakes, substantial settlements known as 'crannogs' were also found. These were artificial islands constructed of stone and timber and may have been sited for their defensive qualities.

Unenclosed settlements are also known. These could range from single or small groups of circular huts, to large village-like settlements. The latter are especially common in eastern England, for example at Little Waltham in Essex. In Scotland, large stone structures known as 'brochs' were built during the Iron Age. These were tall tower structures, often surrounded by smaller roundhouses.

Bog bodies

Old Croghan Man, found in Ireland  © Burial practices in Iron Age Britain were extremely varied. In some regions, such as southern England, formal burials were rare, with only a relatively small number of adult burials known from pits inside hill forts and other settlements.

Finds of fragmentary human bone on many sites have led to the suggestion that the majority of the population in this region were disposed of by 'excarnation' - the deliberate exposure of the corpse.

In the south west and west, bodies were sometimes interred in small stone coffins, known as 'cists'. In East Yorkshire, large formal cemeteries including burials with cart and horse equipment have been discovered. These show strong similarities with Iron Age burials in the Champagne region of France.

Most remarkable of all are the bog bodies, examples of which are known from across the British Isles and northern Europe. Many of these show evidence of a violent death, and in the cases of Lindow Man from Lindow Moss in Cheshire and the recent Irish discoveries at Clonycavan and Croghan, a possible ritual or sacrificial killing has been suggested.

The placing of these individuals in wet locations may also link with the later prehistoric ritual practice of depositing metalwork in rivers, lakes and bogs. Such locations have produced some of the finest Iron Age metalwork known in the British Isles. These include the Waterloo Helmet and Battersea Shield, both from the River Thames; the Llyn Cerig Bach hoard from a bog on Anglesey in North Wales; and the gold torc from a bog at Clonmacnoise in Ireland.

The Iron Age saw the production of some of the finest prehistoric metalwork known from the British Isles. Native bronze and goldsmiths were producing very high quality items that indicate close contacts with their continental counterparts.

Inspired by the so-called 'Celtic' style emanating from La Tene in Switzerland, the smiths produced a wide range of high quality items, many richly decorated with incised designs accompanied by enameled inlays. The artefacts produced ranged from personal items such as brooches to prestige objects including torcs (neck rings), shields, helmets, swords and scabbards, mirrors and ornate horse harnesses and vehicle fittings.

Coinage first appeared in Britain at the end of the second century BC, and by 20 BC coins were found across much of south eastern England. The use of coins never extended into northern and western Britain or Ireland during this period.

Growing Roman influence

A coin from the first century BC found at Alton, Hampshire, England  ©

Towards the end of the second century BC, Roman influence began to extend into the western Mediterranean and southern France. This lead to growing contact between Britain and the Roman world across the English Channel.

Initially this contact was confined to the trading of limited quantities of Roman luxury goods such as wine, probably exchanged for slaves, minerals and grain through sites like Hengistbury Head in Dorset and Mount Batten near Plymouth in Devon. After 50 BC and the conquest of Gaul (modern France) by Julius Caesar, this trade intensified and focused on south east England.

In addition to intensive trade links, Rome appears to have established diplomatic relations with a number of tribes and may have exerted considerable political influence before the Roman conquest of England in AD 43.

At the same time, new types of large settlements called 'oppida' appeared in southern Britain. These appear to have acted as political, economic and religious centres. Many also appear to have been the production centres for Iron Age coins, which often gave the names of rulers, some styling themselves 'Rex', Latin for 'king'.

After AD 43, all of Wales and England south of the line of Hadrian's Wall became part of the Roman empire. Beyond this line, in Scotland and Ireland, Iron Age life and traditions continued with only occasional Roman incursions into Scotland, and trade with Ireland.

Find out more

Books

A Landscape Revealed: 10,000 years on a Chalkland Farm by Martin Green (Tempus Books, 2000)

The Age of Stonehenge by Colin Burgess (Dent, 2002)

Prehistoric Orkney by Anna Ritchie (Batsford Books, 1995)

Avebury: The Biography of a Landscape by Joshua Pollard and Andrew Reynolds (Tempus Books, 2002)

Hengeworld by Mike Pitts (Arrow Books, 2001)

Understanding the Neolithic by Julian Thomas (Routledge, London, 1999)

Ancestral Geographies of the Neolithic: Landscapes, Monuments and Memory by Mark Edmonds (Routledge, London, 1999)

The Significance of Monuments by Richard Bradley (Routledge, London, 1998)

The Passage of Arms: An archaeological Analysis of Prehistoric Hoards and Votive Deposits by Richard Bradley (Cambridge University Press, 1990)

About the author

Julian Richards has been a professional archaeologist for over 30 years. He has extensive experience of working in the field, surveying and excavating prehistoric and later sites. He has written and presented many series for the ´óÏó´«Ã½ including Meet the Ancestors, Mapping the Town and Blood of the Vikings.