����ý

African Americans and racial justice advocates resisted segregation and discrimination and struggled for racial equality and justice. During the late 1950s and 1960s, the activism of several communities and organisations made significant strides towards racial equality.

Grassroots activism

The civil rights movement was not led by one person or organisation. It was a combination of activists, local communities, ordinary people and organisations from which notable leaders emerged. The movement was driven by the activism of a wide range of people across America willing to make great sacrifices for freedom.

The movement grew in prominence in the mid-1950s due to a number of key events. One was school desegregation. Another was the brutal murder of 14-year-old Emmett Till in 1955 and the acquittal of his murderers by an all-white jury. A third was the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

The Montgomery Bus Boycott

Rosa Parks was a local activist and secretary of the local National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) branch in Montgomery, Alabama. On 1 December 1955 she was arrested for breaking the bus segregation rules.

As support for the boycott increased, the city’s bus company suffered financially. In 1956 the Supreme Court ruled that segregated buses were illegal. The 381-day boycott and the use of the legal system had successfully desegregated buses in Montgomery and inspired other southern states to protest racial discrimination.

Non-violent direct action

Another approach used by civil rights activists was non-violent direct action. Activists used civil disobedience to protest against segregation and racism. This involved the activists remaining peaceful even in the face of violence. Scenes of peaceful activists being brutalised were broadcast on television, showing Americans across the country the depth of racism and injustice that existed in the southern states. This put pressure on the government to intervene and support civil rights.

Key activist efforts and campaigns

• In February 1960 black students in Greensboro, North Carolina, sat down at the ‘whites only’ lunch counter in their local Woolworth’s store. Such sit-ins spread across the South. By the end of April, over 50,000 students had participated in these protests.
• After the sit-ins, the activist campaigner Ella Baker encouraged young people to set up the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee(SNCC). The SNCC led and took part in numerous civil rights campaigns.
• In 1957 Dr King became the leader of a new civil rights organisation called the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Its aim was to "redeem the soul of America" through non-violent resistance.
• In April 1963, the SCLC launched a desegregation campaign in Birmingham, Alabama. This involved a series of mass meetings, sit-ins and marches, and a boycott of local shops. The SNCC and local children also participated. Fire hoses and police dogs were used on the demonstrators and the brutal images were displayed on television, creating more support for civil rights.
• The largest civil rights protest march, held in August 1963, was called the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. An estimated 250,000 people attended and it was televised across the nation. Numerous speakers made stirring speeches, including John Lewis - the chair of the SNCC - and Dr King, who gave his famous "I Have a Dream" speech.
• In 1965, the SCLC organised a march from Selma to Birmingham, Alabama, to protest for voting rights. The marchers were fiercely attacked by local police. This became known as Bloody Sunday.

Civil rights legislation

These campaigns and numerous others pressured the federal government to pass civil rights legislation that would uphold the constitutional rights of African Americans. The following laws were passed by President Lyndon B Johnson. They are often referred to as the landmark civil rights laws.